Despite this context, and the reality that animals might be particularly sensitive to human activity, little is known about global patterns of medicinal animal use and the threats these species might face.
Against this high-profile foreground, however, is the reality that up to 80% of the global population uses plant and animal parts for traditional medicines in addition to raw materials for modern medicines (Alves and Rosa 2005). Moreover, prominent scientific publications (e.g., Alves and Rosa 2005, Alves and Barboza 2010, Graham-Rowe 2011) and popular media (e.g., Stromberg and Zielinski 2011, Hall 2019) commonly identify overexploitation as a central concern. 2017) and rhinoceri ( Rhinocerotidae spp.) (Yan et al. Well-known examples of highly exploited medicinal species include pangolins ( Manis spp. Human relationships with medicinal animals are varied and have yet to be broadly synthesized. Key words: animals conservation endangerment ethnomedicine ethnozoology global medicine threats INTRODUCTON These findings can inform spatially and taxonomically explicit biocultural strategies to safeguard not only biodiversity but also important human–animal relationships. Spiritual use medicinal species have a higher proportion of “at-risk” species (~19%) than those used otherwise (~6%), potentially owing to associations among rarity, perceived efficacy, and demand. Many (~62%) species have multiple uses, which is associated with higher endangerment and threats from exploitation than species used solely for medicine. Most (~63%) species are decreasing, and primary threats relate to habitat loss and modification.
Intensity of use generally maps to biodiverse regions with low human development. Most known species (~77%) are chordates in terrestrial habitats (~72%). We examined data from the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List and a literature survey to identify a diverse catalog of medicinal animals ( n = 1660).
Although overexploitation threatens some high-profile medicinal animals, little is known about global patterns in the use of-and threats to-medicinal animals.
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